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Aisha bint Abi Bakr |
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Aisha bint Abu Bakr (612 - 678) (Arabic: عائشة Transliteration: ʿāʾisha, [ʕaːʔɪʃæh]) also transcribed as (A'ishah, Aisyah, Ayesha, A'isha, Aishat, Aishah, or Aisha) was one of Muhammad's wives.[1] In Islamic writings, her name is thus often prefixed by the title "Mother of the Believers" (Arabic: أمّ المؤمنين umm-al-mu'minīn), per the description of Muhammad's wives in the Qur'an.[2][3][4]
According to Sunni beliefs, Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. Regarded by many as his favorite wife, she was an active figure in numerous events and an important witness to many more. Aisha, often known as the first woman of Islam, contributed to the growth, development, and understanding of Islam. Being a role model to a significant amount of others added to her attributions as a consultant regarding Muhammad's prayer and practices, soon introducing herself into a world of politics.[5]
After Muhammad, Aisha was readily involved in continuing his messages. She was present through the reigns of at least the first four caliphs. Her father became the first caliph to succeed Muhammad, his name was Abu Bakr. The second caliph Umar then succeeded Abu Bakr. During the time of the third caliph's reign Aisha rebelled. She did not fully approve of his practices on many occasions. After Uthman's death, Aisha wanted to avenge his death in the Battle of the Camel. She became readily involved in the battle by giving speeches, and riding on her camel in it. She ended up losing the battle, but her involvement and determination had shown through.[4]
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Aisha was the daughter of Um Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Abu Bakr belonged to the Banu Taym sub-clan of the tribe of Quraysh.
Khawlah bint Hakim suggested that Muhammad marry Aisha after the death of Muhammad's first wife (Khadijah bint Khuwaylid), after this, previous agreement regarding marriage of Aisha with Jubayr ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent.[6] British historian William Montgomery Watt suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr;[6] the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.[7]
According to the traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when she was betrothed to Muhammad and nine when the marriage was consummated.[6][8][9] American historian Denise Spellberg states that "these specific references to the bride's age reinforce Aisha's pre-menarcheal status and, implicitly, her virginity."[8] This issue of her virginity was of great importance to those who supported Aisha's position in the debate of the succession to Muhammad. These supporters considered that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible regarding the debate.[10]
Aisha stayed in her parents' home for several years until she joined Muhammad and the marriage was consummated.[6][8][9][11][12][13] Most of the sources indicate that she was nine years old at the time, with the single exception of al-Tabari, who records that she was ten.[8] The sources do not offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years, but mention that after the wedding, she continued to play with her toys, and that Muhammad entered into the spirit of these games.[14]
The issue of Aisha's age at the time she was married to Muhammad has been of interest since the earliest days of Islam, and references to her age by early historians are frequent. Early Muslims regarded Aisha's youth as demonstrating her virginity and therefore her suitability as a bride of Muhammad. According to Spellberg, historians who supported Aisha's position in the debate of the succession to Muhammad against Shi'a claims considered her youth, and therefore her purity, to be of paramount importance. They thus specifically emphasized it, implying that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible in the debate.[8]
Child marriages such as this were relatively common in Bedouin societies at the time, and remain common in some societies even today.[15] British scholar Colin Turner suggests that such marriages were not seen as improper in historical context, and that individuals in such societies matured at an earlier age than in the modern West.[15] In modern times, however, the issue of Muhammad marrying and having sexual relations with a girl so young has been used to criticize him, particularly in societies where child sexual abuse and related issues are considered serious crimes.[15]
In Sunni belief, after Khadijah bint Khuwaylid (who died before the migration to Madinah took place) Aisha is described as Muhammad's most beloved wife, and it was in her company that Muhammad reportedly received the most revelations.[16]
While travelling, Aisha discovered she was missing her necklace. She left her litter to find it, but got lost and the caravan left without her. She was waiting to be rescued and fell asleep. She was found the next morning by a young nomad named Safwan who brought her back to Medina. Rumors started about infidelity and Muhammad consulted some of his followers in the right path. Ali advised that the Prophet could take another wife if he wished to do so [17] However Usama bin Zayd Bin, son of Zayd ibn Harithah, defended Aisha's reputation. When questioned, he declared 'This is all a lie - we know nothing but good of her.' His position as adopted grandson of the Prophet meant that his opinion eventually came to be highly regarded, but at this point he was about the same age as Aisha and his testimony did not hold much weight. Shortly after this, Muhammad announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery must be supported by four eyewitnesses.[18] This revelation also rebuked Aisha's accusers[19] whom Muhammad ordered to receive forty lashes in punishment.[20][21]
Soon after the event of the honey which involved Aisha, Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God.[22]
Some Sunni commentators on the Qur'an sometimes give this story as the "occasion of revelation" for Sura 66, which opens with the following verses: "Prophet, why do you prohibit that which God has made lawful for you, in seeking to please your wives? God is forgiving and merciful. God has given you absolution from such oaths."[23]
Aisha did not remarry after Muhammad's death because a passage in the Qur'an forbids any Muslim to marry a widow of Muhammad:[24]
Nor is it right for you that ye should annoy God's Apostle , or that ye should marry his widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is in God's sight an enormity.—Qur'an 33:53
After a decade of marriage to Muhammad, which ended with his death, Aisha lived fifty more years in and around Medina. Much of her time was spent learning and acquiring knowledge of the Quran, and the Sunnah of Muhammad. Aisha was one of three wives (the other two being Hafsah and Umm Salamah) who memorized the Quran. Like Hafsah, Aisha had her own script of the Quran written after Muhammad's death.[25] During Aisha’s life many prominent customs of Islam, such as veiling and seclusion of women, began. Aisha’s importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition, and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam.[26] Aisha has been deemed one of the most influential "Mother(s) of the Believer." Specifically after Muhammed's death, Aisha became readily involved in politics and the continuation of Islam. During a time in Islam when women were not expected, or wanted, to contribute outside of the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in war battles, and helped both men and women with understanding the practices of Muhammad.[5] She was also readily involved in the first three caliphate reigns; Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman.Though Aisha's marriage to Muhammad is an important aspect of her life, her political and cultural influence on early Islam, after Muhammad's death, greatly defined who she was as a person.
From early on, Abu Bakr, Aisha’s father was highly recognized by the prophet. Both Aisha’s mother and father were muhajirun, “emigrants”. In 622 Muhammad migrated from Mecca to Medina in the Hijra. The muhajirun were those loyal enough to follow, therefore are considered the first group of Muslims to convert to Islam. Abu Bakr was close friends with the Prophet because he had been involved in the conversion to Islam. Aisha’s genealogy gave her advantages in the Islamic community early on in life. Abu Bakr was not particularly in favor of the marriage between Aisha and the Prophet, because o his concern that the marriage could cause turmoil between the bonds of Muhammad and himself. "You are my brother in religion," said Muhammad projecting the importance of faith over blood in communal relationships.
After Muhammad's death in 632, the Islamic community was faced with the dilemma of deciding who would stand in his place. Abu Bakr was appointed by a committee as political successor to the Prophet, or the first caliph.[27] Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his trusted companionship to the prophet and his new found role as father-in-law. Abu Bakr was the first to set the guidelines of the new position of authority.[8]
From then on Aisha gained more special privilege in the Islamic community for being known as both the wife to the late Prophet, and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father’s strong dedication to Islam. Abu Bakr was referred to as al-siddiq, “the truthful”, referring to his noble effort of speaking the truth in support of the Prophet’s one night journey to Jerusalem. Being Abu Bakr's daughter gave Aisha the title of al-siddiqa bint al-siddiq, meaning “the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man.”[8]
In 634 Abu Bakr became sick and unable to recover. While suffering a tragic death he asked Aisha how many pieces of cloth was on Muhammad’s shroud and decided he would want the same amount, 3. Abu Bakr soon died and was buried next to Muhammad’s grave in Aisha's room.[28]
Prior to his death, Abu Bakr appointed Umar as the second caliph. During Abu Bakr's reign, Umar held the position as one of his chief advisers and secretary.[8] While Umar was in position of second caliph, Aisha played the role as a consultant in political matters.[8]
After Umar died, the third caliph was chosen to be Uthmān, who was originally known and liked by Muhammad. He wanted to promote interest in the Umayyads. Aisha had little involvement with Uthmān for the first couple years, but eventually she found a way into the politics of his reign. She eventually grew to despise Uthmān, and many are un-sure of what specifically triggered her eventual opposition towards him. A prominent opposition that arose towards him was when Uthmān mistreated Ammar ibn Yasir (companion of the prophet) by beating him. Aisha became enraged and spoke out publicly saying, "How soon indeed you have forgotten the practice (sunnah) of your prophet and these, his hairs, a shirt, and sandal have not yet perished!" (108).[4] She was showing and telling the people of Medina that Muhammad would not have allowed this sort of act.
As time continued issues of antipathy towards Uthmān continued to arise. Another instance of opposition arose when the people came to Aisha, after Uthmān ignored the rightful punishment for Walid idn Uqbah (Uthmān's brother). Aisha and Uthmān argued with each other,Uthmān eventually made a comment on why Aisha had come and how she was "ordered to stay at home"(111).[4] Arising from this comment, was the question of whether Aisha, and for that matter women, still had the ability to be involved in public affairs. The Muslim community became split, "some sided with Uthmān, but others demanded to know who indeed had better right than Aisha in such matters"(111).[4]
The caliphate's reign took a turn for the worst when Egypt was governed by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (Aisha's half brother). Abbott reports that Mohammad ibn Abi Hudhaifah of Egypt, an opposer of Uthmān, forged letters in the "Mother's of the Believers" names to the conspirators against Uthmān. The people cut off Uthmān's water and food supply. When Aisha realized the behavior of the crowd, Abbot notes, Aisha could not believe the crowd "would offer such indignities to a widow of Mohammad"(122).[4] She is referencing when Safīyah (one of Muhammed's wives) tried to help Uthmān and got taken by the crowd. Ashtar (a rebel) then approached her about killing Uthmān and the letter, and she claimed she would never want to "command the shedding of the blood of the Muslims and the killing of their Imām" (122), she also claimed she did not write the letters.[4] The city continued to oppose Uthmān, but as for Aisha, her journey to Mecca was approaching. With the journey to Mecca approaching at this time, she wanted to rid herself of the situation. Uthmān heard of her not wanting to hurt him, and he asked her to stay because of her influence on the people, but this did not persuade Aisha, and she continued on her journey with opposition both towards Uthmān and the Egyptians.[4]
In Medina, conspirators, including Mohammad ibn Abi Bakr, broke into Uthmān's house, and eventually Uthmān was murdered. It is not quite sure who murdered Uthmān, but his wife, Nailah, claims it was Mohammad ibn Abī Bakr, and others believe Ali was involved (4th caliph). Aisha, at this point had been clear of any blame, and was continuing her journey to Mecca. In Mecca, upon hearing about Uthman's death, Aisha rallied support against the new Caliph, (Ali bin Abi Talib), by placing him with the responsibility for Uthmān's murder.[4] To Aisha, Uthmān's murder was seen as a moment to replace Alī with a more suitable Caliph such as her close allies. It was during this time that Aisha led her followers into a battle known as Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) against Alī's forces in Medina. It was at the Battle of Bassorah that was deemed Islam's foremost understanding of a civil war (fitnah). Although Aisha was dedicated to and fully recognized the importance of following God's commandments, she also was committed to maintaining the "secular character" of the Caliphate.[29]
In 655, Uthman was murdered, which caused the First Fitna.[30]
Professor Leila Ahmed claims that it was during this engagement that Muslims fought Muslims for the first time,[16] in which Aisha was one of the central figures.
Upon arrival back to Mecca after Uthman's death, Aisha, enraged about the murder of Uthman and the election of Ali, gave a speech. She spoke to the people of Mecca "at the sacred spot of Hijr"(131),[4] questioned to be created by Abraham. Aisha spoke of his death, and how the murderers "shed sacred blood, desecrated the sacred city, seized sacred funds, and profaned the sacred month"(131) [4] At this point Governor Abd Allah followed in command of Aisha. Others such as Umayyads, others from different provinces, and fugitives from Medina came to support Aisha in her conquests. Others also questioned her true feelings towards avenging Uthmans death because she had opposed his reign for so long. Aisha defended her sincerity throughout her life.[4]
When it came time to decide whether to continue on spreading the word of the opposition, Aisha and her advisers believed going to Basrah was the best choice so they could obtain more followers. Aisha was unsure of this idea, but was greatly urged to continue on. Abbott reports that over a thousand people followed Aisha, but only one "Mother of the Beleivers" followed en-suit, Hafsah. Aisha's "sisters" traveled with her and the group until reaching Dhat Irq, where they cried and said goodbye, the day known as "The Day of Weeping"(138).[4]
The continuation of the journey brought Aisha closer to Basrah, where she received a notice from Umm Salamah urging her not to continue, and her participation in the battle is not womanly. She did not back down, but rode her camel, which was known to be the best in Arabia. At one point on the journey to Basrah, Aisha became scared and didn't want to continue on. Aisha's followers managed to convince her to continue despite of her doubts and fears. During their time at Basrah, there was much political happenings that occurred between Egypt, Ali, and Aisha.[4]
When the battle occurred, Aisha rode out on her camel with Kab ibn Sur. He was killed by an arrow and she was left alone to command her troops. Aisha regularly tried to give speeches to her followers. Arrows were flying all around her, and many of the warriors came to protect her. Many of Aisha's protectors died trying to defend her and her camel, depicting the name "Battle of the Camel". Ali "gave orders to hamstring the animal,"(161)[4] which was the moment Aisha realized she had been defeated. Ali,with respect,sent her back to Madina, with her brother Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr. Ali and Aisha were accounted to have had a friendly relationship after the battle, and with this she backed down from "opposition and effective defiance" (164).[4]
Aisha may have lost the Battle of the Camel, but her true beliefs made her overcome opposition and challenges. She was shown to be persistent in her beliefs and never let her gender get in the way of stating her opinions and fighting for them.
After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with Muhammad's first wife Khadijah bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad partook in 10 years of polygamy, possessing nine wives. Muhammad's nine marriages were depicted purely as political unions rather than sexual unions. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsah associated him with two of the highest significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's and Hafsah's fathers, Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattāb, correspondingly.[29] Aisha’s marriage to the Prophet has led to her significance among many within the Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned lady of her time. Being Muhammad’s favorite wife, Aisha occupied a considerable attitude within his life.[26] When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women."[31] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of Hadith due to her qualities of intelligence and memory.[26] Aishah delivered ideas expressing the Prophets practice (sunna). Aisha expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.[32]
Muhammad became a significantly powerful figure in 627 C.E. of the rapidly expanding Islamic community. Due to this expansion, segregation of his wives were permitted to enforce their sacrosanct. Veiling, which was seen as the most distinctive emblem, was not specifically enjoined upon Muslim women anywhere within the Quran. During the time of Muhammad's leadership, women were not documented or observed as hijab in Ummah. Other than Muhammad's wives, other women were not required to veil, but others, including the Qur'an, believed it to be modest to conceal their bodies in clothing.[29]
After the death of Muhammad, Muslim women believed it was Muslim men, not Islam, that suppressed the rights of women. It was for that reason that Muslim feminists are advocating to return Islam to the envisioned society Muhammad had originally had for his followers. It was from Muhammad that the developed idea that Medina was a society in which he designated Muslim women as spiritual guides, prayed and fought alongside Muslim men, and acted not only as religious leaders but political leaders, which was an act Aisha participated in herself, such as the Battle of the Camel. Muhammad himself was publically rebuked by his wives as well. United prayer gathering including Muslim men and women occurred near Muhammad's house as they were blessed as a "single undivided community" (136).[29]
Aisha played a key role in the emergence of Islam, and played an active position in social reform of the Islamic culture.[33] Not only was she supportive of Muhammad, but she added scholarly intelligence to the development of Islam.[31] During a point in Aisha’s life she was given the title Aisha as-Siddiqah, meaning “the one who affirms the truth.”[33] Aisha was known for her "...expertise in the Qur'an, shares of inheritance, lawful and unlawful matters, poetry, Arabic literature, Arab history, genealogy, and general medicine.".[31] Her intelligence and contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam.[5] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was ascribed as the most reliable source in the teachings of Hadith.[31] Being Muhammad's favorite wife and a close companion, soon after his death the Islamic community began consulting Aisha on Muhammad's practices, and she was often used to settle disputes on demeanor and infrequent points of law. Aisha's authentication on Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for development of the ways in which he prayed and corrected the reading within versus of the Qur'an.[5] Urwah, Aisha’s nephew, explained Aisha’s strengths as knowledgeable in Islamic law. Aisha was also often solicited for advice regarding information on inheritance, requiring much needed knowledge of the Quran. She exemplified the ability to clearly speak allowed for successful and influential presentations and speeches.[33]
During Aisha’s entire life she was a strong advocate for the education of Islamic women especially in areas such as law and the teachings of Islam.[33] Aisha, the mother of the Muslims, was known for establishing the first madrasah for women in her home.[31] Attending Aisha’s classes varied from family relatives to orphaned children.[33] Men also attended Aisha's classes, and a curtain simply separated the male and female students.[31] One of her most mentioned and outstanding students was her nephew, Urwah, who eventually became one of the greatest scholars of his generation. Umrah bint Abdur was also one of Aisha’s famous women pupils who was not only regarded as a trustworthy narrator of the Hadith, but became Aisha’s secretary.[33]
Aisha's scholarly intelligence and motherly figure allowed for important contributions in the emergence of Islam and an important dignitary to the Muslim women.
As mentioned before, Aisha became an influential figure in early Islam after Muhammed's death. However, Aisha also had a strong political influence. Though Muhammad had ordered his wives to stay in the home, Aisha, after Muhammad’s death, took a public and predominant role in politics. Aisha’s political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, into an Islamic leader after Muhammad’s death. Through Aisha’s standing as Muhammad’s favorite wife, her opinion was taken greatly into consideration. In early Islam, after Muhammad’s death, it was uncommon for women to play a governing role in the religious or political decisions. However, it was through Aisha’s recommendation and status as Muhammad’s favorite wife that led to her father’s appointment as the first political leader after the Prophet’s death. Abu Bakr relied heavily on his status as Muhammad's father-in-law, and subsequent close friend.[34]
During the rule of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth successor of Muhammad, Aisha and two other male allies publicly opposed Ali ibn Abi Talib's power.[34] Political control over Islam soon escalated to bloodshed. After the death of Uthman, as mentioned in previous sections, a veiled Aisha delivered a public address at the mosque in Mecca. In the address she swore to avenge Uthman’s death. Her charismatic speech eventually influenced many to join the cause against Ali ibn Abi Talib. Her desire to avenge Uthman's death eventually led to the Battle of the Camel. During the Battle of the Camel, Aisha exhibited her role as a commander by directing her men into battle. Her position as commander positively impacted the organization and direction of the men fighting. Ali ibn Abi Talib soon realized the power Aisha had over the men, and ordered his men to kill her camel. Once the orders had been completed, Aisha was unable to direct her men. Without her command, the men quickly became disorganized, subsequently losing the important battle.[35]
After the defeat at the Battle of Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina as a virtual prisoner.[34] Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics, however, did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Amongst the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions.[36] Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages, which had become influential in creating the Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact those in Islam.[34]
In conclusion, Aisha took a pertinent role in the development and shaping of Islam after Muhammad's death. She was readily involved during the first three caliphate reigns in war and politics. Others revered her for her influential role as one of Muhammad's wives. Aisha was notorious for her role in the Battle of the Camel and also her influence upon others. Aisha died approximately 50 years after Muhammad, leaving behind her teachings of Islam.
Aisha died in Medina at the age of 65 in 678 CE (57 AH), 17 Ramadan.[37] She was buried in the Jannat al-Baqi. Though the claim of her burial at Al-Baqi cannot be verified from independent sources.
Sunnis hold Aisha in high esteem, many believe after Khadijah bint Khuwaylid,she was Muhammad's favorite wife and the best woman of her time. They consider her (amongst other wives) to be Umm al-Mu'minin and among the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, or Muhammad's family.
The Shi'a view of Aisha is a negative one. This is primarily due to what they see as her contempt for the Ahl al-Bayt (the Islamic prophet Muhammad's family) and her attempts to stir up the fitnah (civil war) of the time. Her participation in the Battle of Jamal against Ali is widely considered her most significant sign of such contempt. They also do not believe that she conducted herself in an appropriate manner in her role as Muhammad's wife.